tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12107206201081613822024-02-18T22:37:35.248-08:00The House of Osman - Osmanlı HânedanıA history of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.comBlogger3125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1210720620108161382.post-7581880710104576572017-01-06T04:08:00.000-08:002017-01-06T08:15:43.763-08:00The Ottoman Caliphate<div style="text-align: center;">
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><b>خليفة</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #ffe599; font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">(note: this article is under construction)</span><br />
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Ottoman rulers were known primarily by the title of Sultan.</div>
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The first time the title of caliph was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was the peace treaty with Russia in 1774. The outcome of this war was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations such as Crimea, were lost to the Christian Russian Empire.</div>
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However, the Ottomans under Abdulhamid I claimed a diplomatic victory, the recognition of themselves as protectors of Muslims in Russia as part of the peace treaty.</div>
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This was the first time the Ottoman caliph was acknowledged as having political significance outside of Ottoman borders by a European power. As a consequence of this diplomatic victory, as the Ottoman borders were shrinking, the powers of the Ottoman caliph increased.</div>
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Around 1880 Sultan Abdulhamid II reasserted the title as a way of countering creeping European colonialism in Muslim lands.</div>
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His claim was most fervently accepted by the Muslims of British India.</div>
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By the eve of the First World War, the Ottoman state, despite its weakness vis-à-vis Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity.</div>
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But the sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.</div>
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<b>The Ottoman Empire</b><br />
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<span style="color: orange; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">19 CENTURY OTTOMAN SULTANS</span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Abdülhamid II 1867</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Abdul Hamid II (</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Ottoman Turkish: </span><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b>عبد الحميد ثانی,</b></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> - Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i sânî - T<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">u</span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">rkish: Ikinci Abdülhamit; 21 September 1842 – 10 February 1918) was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and the last Sultan to exert effective autocratic control over the fracturing state.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">He oversaw a period of decline in the power and extent of the Ottoman Empire, including widespread pogroms and government-sanctioned attacks on Armenians and Bulgarians, as well as an assassination attempt, ruling from 31 August 1876 until he was deposed shortly after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, on 27 April 1909.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In accordance with an agreement made with the republican 'Young Ottomans', he promulgated the first Ottoman constitution of 1876 on 23 December 1876, which was a sign of progressive thinking that marked his early rule.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Soon, however, he claimed Western influence on Ottoman affairs and citing disagreements with Parliament, Abdul Hamid suspended both the short-lived constitution and Parliament in 1878 and seized absolute power, ending the first constitutional era of the Ottoman Empire.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Abdul Hamid's 1909 removal from the throne was hailed by most Ottoman citizens, who welcomed the return to constitutional rule after three decades.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Despite his conservatism and despotic rule, some modernization of the Ottoman Empire occurred during Abdul Hamid's long reign, including reform of the bureaucracy, the extension of the Rumelia Railway and Anatolia Railway, and the construction of the Baghdad Railway and Hejaz Railway, the establishment of a system for population registration and control over the press and the founding of the first modern law school in 1898.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The most far-reaching of these reforms were in education: professional schools were established.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The University of Istanbul, although shut down by Abdul Hamid himself in 1881, was reopened in 1900, and a network of secondary, primary, and military schools was extended throughout the empire.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Railway and telegraph systems were developed by primarily German firms.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Between 1871 and 1908, the 'Sublime Porte' thus "<i>reached a new degree of organizational elaboration and articulation</i>."</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">RELIGIOUS POLICY</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Abdul Hamid believed that the ideas of 'Tanzimat' could not bring the disparate peoples of the empire to a common identity, such as Ottomanism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">He tried to formulate a new ideological principle, 'Pan-Islamism'; since Ottoman sultans beginning with 1517 were also nominally 'Caliphs', he wanted to promote that fact and emphasized the Ottoman Caliphate.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Abdul Hamid usually resisted the pressure of the European powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only to overwhelming force, and to appear as the champion of Islam against aggressive Christendom.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Pan-Islamism was encouraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire, which were often seen as an obstacle to effective government, were curtailed.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Along with the strategically important Constantinople-Baghdad Railway, the Constantinople-Medina Railway was also completed, making the trip to Mecca for Hajj more efficient.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Missionaries were sent to distant countries preaching Islam and the Caliph's supremacy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Abdul Hamid's appeals to Muslim sentiment were not very effective due to widespread disaffection within the Empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In Mesopotamia and Yemen disturbance was endemic; nearer home, a semblance of loyalty was maintained in the army, and among the Muslim population, only by a system of deflation and espionage (see below).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">After his rule began, Abdul Hamid became fearful of being assassinated and withdrew himself into the fortified seclusion of the Yildiz Palace.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">BRIEF BIOGRAPHY</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Abdul Hamid II was born at the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, on 21 September 1842.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">He was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid and Tirimüjgan Kadinefendi (Circassia, 16 August 1819 – Beylerbeyi Palace, 2 November 1853).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">After the death of his mother, he later became the adoptive son of his father's wife, 'Valide Sultan' Rahime Perestu.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Surprisingly, he was a skilled carpenter and personally crafted some high quality furniture, which can be seen today at the Yildiz Palace, Sale Kosku and Beylerbeyi Palace in Istanbul.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Abdul Hamid II was also interested in opera, and personally wrote the first-ever Turkish translations of many opera classics.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">He also composed several opera pieces for the Mizika-yi Hümâyun (Ottoman Imperial Band/Orchestra, which was established by his grandfather Mahmud II who had appointed Donizetti Pasha as its Instructor General in 1828), and hosted the famous performers of Europe at the Opera House of Yildiz Palace.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Unlike many other Ottoman sultans, Abdul Hamid II traveled to distant countries.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Nine years before he took the throne, he accompanied his uncle Sultan Abdülaziz on his visit to Paris (30 June – 10 July 1867), London (12–23 July 1867), Vienna (28–30 July 1867) and the capitals or cities of a number of other European countries in the summer of 1867 (they departed from Istanbul on 21 June 1867 and returned on 7 August 1867).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">He ascended to the throne following the deposition of his brother Murad on 31 August 1876.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">At his accession, some commentators were impressed by the fact that he rode practically unattended to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque where he was girded with the 'Sword of Osman'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Most people expected Abdul Hamid II to have liberal ideas, and some conservatives were inclined to regard him with suspicion as a dangerous reformer.</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNyasHIh7aOtCkCjRKZqlk1BSOG9k-W2Ydpputijbu7HkjGnzpnFwsgKGbXmWmZYUfMJimCbVfkBBN38mNXgv00fLgL6CR__5L3pXs56xZWG6ZNY1y4UmcPkLQBOapvTwAQeyOqHOuZwz3/s1600/Abdul+Hamid+II+-+House+of+Ossman+-+Ottoman+Empire.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNyasHIh7aOtCkCjRKZqlk1BSOG9k-W2Ydpputijbu7HkjGnzpnFwsgKGbXmWmZYUfMJimCbVfkBBN38mNXgv00fLgL6CR__5L3pXs56xZWG6ZNY1y4UmcPkLQBOapvTwAQeyOqHOuZwz3/s200/Abdul+Hamid+II+-+House+of+Ossman+-+Ottoman+Empire.jpg" width="150" /></a><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Abdul Hamid was exceptionally paranoid - part of the legacy of inherited mental instability that affected many of the later Ottoman Sultans - and set up an immense spying system throughout the empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">His reign ended when the government decided to depose Abdul Hamid, and on 27 April his brother Reshad Efendi was proclaimed as Sultan Mehmed V.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The ex-sultan was conveyed into captivity at Salonica.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In 1912, when Salonica fell to Greece, he was returned to captivity in Constantinople.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Abdul Hamid also wrote poetry:</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><i>'My Lord I know you are the Dear One </i>(</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Al-Aziz</span><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">)</span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">... And no one but you are the Dear One</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">You are the One, and nothing else</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">My God take my hand in these hard times</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">My God be my helper in this critical hour'</span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">He spent his last days studying, carpentering and writing his memoirs in custody at Beylerbeyi Palace in the Bosphorus, where he died on 10 February 1918, just a few months before his brother, the Sultan.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">He was buried in Constantinople.</span></div>
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<b>Abdülhamid II</b><br />
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<b>Abdulhamid II Tugra - The House of Osman </b><br />
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<b>Sultan Mehmed V 1917 </b><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Mehmed V Resâd (Ottoman Turkish:</span><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"> محمد خامس</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Meḥmed-i ẖâmis - Turkish: Mehmed V Resad or Resat Mehmet) (2 November 1844 – 3 July 1918) was the 35th and penultimate Ottoman Sultan.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">He was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid I.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">He was succeeded by his half-brother Mehmed VI.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">His nine-year reign was marked by the cession of the Empire's North African territories and the Dodecanese Islands, including Rhodes, in the Italo-Turkish War, the traumatic loss of almost all of the Empire's European territories west of Constantinople in the First Balkan War, and the entry of the Empire into World War I, which would ultimately lead to the end of the Ottoman Empire.</span></div>
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<b>Sultan Mehmed VI Vahideddin</b><br />
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<b>Abdülmecid II</b><br />
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></b>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">T H E H O U S E O F O S M A N</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">T O D A Y ?</span><br />
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<b>Prince Konstantin V Mustafaev of The House of Osman</b><br />
<b>is this the successor to the Sword of Osman ?</b></div>
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<b>Turga of Prince Konstantin V Mustafaev of The House of Osman</b><br />
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1210720620108161382.post-74055588577948458612017-01-06T03:19:00.001-08:002017-01-06T04:02:33.822-08:00Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-small;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">INTRODUCTION</span><br />
<span style="color: #ffe599; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">(note: this article is under construction)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">By the 1700s it was obvious that the Empire was in the initial phases of the process of decline.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">This decline was evident in the sciences, technology, but most obviously in the military sphere.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">CONSERVATIVE MUSLIM CLERGY</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The main cause of this decline was the<i> excessive influence</i> of <i>conservative Muslim clergy</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the <i>Islamic clergy</i> successfully objected under the grounds of<i> theodicy</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">In 1726, Ibrahim Muteferrika convinced the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha, the Grand Mufti, and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some calligraphers and religious leaders).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">SECURITY</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Beginning from the late eighteenth century, the Ottoman Empire faced challenges defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">In response to foreign threats, the empire initiated a period of tremendous internal reform which came to be known as the 'Tanzimat', which succeeded in significantly strengthening the Ottoman central state, despite the empire's precarious international position.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Over the course of the nineteenth century, the Ottoman state became increasingly powerful and rationalized, exercising a greater degree of influence over its population than in any previous era.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The process of reform and 'modernization' in the empire began with the declaration of the Nizam-i Cedid (New Order) during the reign of Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807), and was punctuated by several reform decrees, such as the Hatt-i Serif of Gülhane in 1839 and the Hatt-i Hümayun in 1856. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">At the end of this period, marked with 1908, to a degree the Ottoman military became modernized and professionalized according to the model of Western European Armies.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The period was followed by defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">In 1768 Russian-backed Haidamaks, pursuing Polish confederates, entered Balta, an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia, and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom to worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">By the late 18th century, a number of defeats in several wars with Russia led some people in the Ottoman Empire to conclude that the reforms of Peter the Great had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Selim III (1789–1807) made the first major attempts to modernize the army, but reforms were hampered by the religious leadership, and the Janissary corps.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, the Janissary created a revolt.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who eliminated the Janissary corps in 1826.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The Serbian revolution (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of national awakening in the Balkans during the Eastern Question.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own dynasty was acknowledged de jure in 1830.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">In 1821, the Greeks declared war on the Sultan.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the Peloponnese, which, along with the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth, became the first parts of the Ottoman empire to achieve independence (in 1829).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man" by Europeans.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia and Montenegro – moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">During the Tanzimat period (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalisation of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law and guilds with modern factories.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">تنظيمات (Tanzimât) literally meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The Tanzimât reform era was characterized by various attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire and to secure its territorial integrity against nationalist movements from within and aggressive powers from outside of the state. The reforms encouraged Ottomanism among the diverse ethnic groups of the Empire, attempting to stem the tide of nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire. The reforms attempted to integrate non-Muslims and non-Turks more thoroughly into Ottoman society by enhancing their civil liberties and granting them equality throughout the Empire.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Samuel Morse received his first ever patent for the telegraph in 1847, which was issued by Sultan Abdülmecid who personally tested the new invention.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Following this successful test, installation works of the first telegraph line (Istanbul-Adrianople-Şumnu) began on 9 August 1847.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn-u Esâsî.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The empire's First Constitutional era, was short-lived.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue foreign loans amounting to 5 million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The war caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were ethnically cleansed and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus and fled to the Ottoman Empire, resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in Turkey.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) ended with a decisive victory for Russia.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, Romania achieved full independence. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Although the Ottoman government contested this move, its troops were defeated within three weeks.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">In return for British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's advocacy for restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, Britain assumed the administration of Cyprus in 1878, and later sent troops to Egypt in 1882, with the pretext of helping the Ottoman government to put down the Urabi Revolt; effectively gaining control in both territories.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">From 1894–96, between 100,000 to 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the empire's remaining territory in Balkans or to the heartland in Anatolia.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">NATIONALISM</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a growing sense of ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported to the Ottoman Empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The empire was forced to deal with nationalism from both within and beyond its borders.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The number of revolutionary, secret societies which turned into political parties during the next period rose dramatically.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of the Ottoman policy during the early 20th century.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Many Ottoman ruling elite questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">RUSSIAN PAN-SLAVISM</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The Russian extension in this century developed with the main theme of supporting independence of Ottomans' former provinces and then bringing all of the Slav peoples of the Balkans under Bulgaria or using Armenians in the east sets the stage.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">At the end of the century from Russian perspective; Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and autonomy of Bulgaria was achieved.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">That alarmed the Great Powers.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">After the Congress of Berlin the Russian expansion was controlled through stopping the expansion of Bulgaria.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The Russian public felt that at the end of Congress of Berlin thousands of Russian soldiers had died for nothing.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The military of the Ottoman Empire remained an effective fighting force until the second half of the eighteenth century, when it suffered a catastrophic defeat against Russia in the 1768-74 war.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">MILITARY REFORM</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Selim III came to the throne with an ambitious effort in military reforms in 1789.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">He failed, and Selim III was replaced by Mahmud II in 1808 who established martial law of Alemdar Mustafa Pasha.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">His first task was to ally with the Janissaries in order to break the power of the provincial governors.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">He then turned on the Janissaries, and removed them from power during Auspicious Incident in 1826 (see above).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Efforts for a new system (1826–1858) began following was was referred to as 'the Auspicious Incident'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The stagnation and reform of the Ottoman Empire (1683–1827) ended with the dismemberment of Ottoman Classical Army.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The issue during the decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire (1828–1908) was to create a military (a security apparatus) that could win wars and bring security to its subjects.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">That goal took multiple Sultans with multiple reorganizations during this period.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">At the end of this period, with the Second Constitutional Era in 1908, - with a degree of- Ottoman military became modernized and professionalized in the form of European Armies.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Defeat and Dissolution</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The Second Constitutional Era began after the Young Turk Revolution (3 July 1908) with the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">It marked the beginning of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">This era is dominated by the politics of the 'Committee of Union and Progress', and the movement that would become known as the 'Young Turks'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, but it pulled its troops out of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, another contested region between the Austrians and Ottomans, to avoid a war.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">During the Italo-Turkish War (1911–12), in which the Ottoman Empire lost Libya, the Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The Empire lost the Balkan Wars (1912–13).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">It lost its Balkan territories except East Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Adrianople during the war.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Some 400,000 Muslims, out of fear of Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">During the period from 1821 to 1922 alone, the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims in the Balkans led to the death of several million individuals, and the expulsion of a similar number.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">By 1914 the Ottoman Empire had been driven out of nearly all of Europe and North Africa. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">It still controlled 28 million people, of whom 15.5 million were in modern-day Turkey, 4.5 million in Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan, and 2.5 million in Iraq.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Another 5.5 million people were under nominal Ottoman rule in the Arabian peninsula.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers (?), in which it took part in the Middle Eastern theatre.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut, but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous Caucasus Campaign against the Russians.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The United States never declared war against the Ottoman Empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">In 1915, as the Russian Caucasus Army continued to advance in eastern Anatolia, aided by some Ottoman Armenians, the Ottoman government started the deportation and massacre of its ethnic Armenian population.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Ethnic cleansing was also enforced against the Greek and Assyrian minorities.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The 'Arab Revolt', engineered by the British, which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans at the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The Armistice of Mudros, signed on 30 October 1918, ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre, and was followed with occupation of Constantinople and subsequent partitioning of the Ottoman Empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">Under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was solidified. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The last quarter of the 19th and the early part of the 20th century saw some 7–9 million Turkish-Muslim refugees from the lost territories of the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands migrate to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The occupation of Constantinople and İzmir led to the establishment of a Turkish national movement, which won the Turkish War of Independence (1919–22) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha (known later as Mustafa Kemal Atatürk).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI (reigned 1918–22), left the country on 17 November 1922.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms, sans-serif;">The Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923. The Caliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924.</span><br />
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1210720620108161382.post-5983929537182243882011-05-19T14:23:00.001-07:002017-01-06T04:11:10.538-08:00The House of Osman<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #ffe599; font-family: verdana, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">(note: this article is under construction)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b>دولت عليه عثمانیه</b></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿOsmâniyye - Modern Turkish: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu - (</span><span style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The Ottoman Empire)</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> sometimes referred to as the Turkish Empire, was a contiguous transcontinental empire founded by Turkish tribes under Osman Bey in north-western Anatolia in 1299.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">With the conquest of Constantinople by Mehmet II in 1453 the Ottoman state was transformed into an empire.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was one of the most powerful states in the world – a multinational, multilingual empire, controlling much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia/the Caucasus, North Africa and the Horn of Africa.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states, some of which were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">With Constantinople (Istanbul) as its capital and control of vast lands around the Mediterranean basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for over six centuries.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">It was dissolved in the aftermath of World War I; the collapse of the empire led to the emergence of the new political regime in Turkey itself, as well as the creation of the new Balkans and Middle East.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">The Ottoman Dynasty </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman), ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1299 to 1922, beginning with Osman I (not counting his father, Ertug(rul), though the dynasty was not proclaimed until Orhan Bey declared himself sultan.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Before that the tribe/dynasty might have been known as Sög(üt but was renamed Osmanli (Ottoman in English) in honour of Osman.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The sultan was the sole and absolute regent, head of state and head of government of the empire, at least officially, though often much power shifted de facto to other officials, especially the Grand Vizier.</span></div>
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<b>The Ottoman Sultan Holding Court at The Port of Felicity</b></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">TITLES & STYLE OF THE RULING OTTOMAN SULTAN </span></b></div>
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<i>Padishah,</i><br />
<i> Hünkar,</i><br />
<i> Hakan ül-Berreyn vel-Bahreyn;</i><br />
<i> Sovereign of the House of Osman, Sultan of Sultans,</i><br />
<i> Khan of Khans,</i><br />
<i> Commander (Caliph) of the Faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the Lord of the Universe</i><br />
<i> Custodian of the Holy Cities of Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem</i><br />
<i> Caesar of the Roman Empire</i><br />
<i> Emperor of The Three Cities of Constantinople, Adrianople and Bursa, and of the Cities of Damascus and Cairo, of all Azerbaijan, of the Magris, of Barka, of Kairouan, of Aleppo, of Arabic Iraq and of Acem, of Basra, of Al-Hasa, of Dilen, of Ar Raqqah, of Mosul, of Parthia, of Diyarbak?r, of Cilicia, of the Vilayets of Erzurum, of Sivas, of Adana, of Karaman, Van, of Barbary, of Abyssinia, of Tunisia, of Tripoli, of Damascus, of Cyprus, of Rhodes, of Candia, of the Vilayet of the Morea, of the Marmara Sea, the Black Sea and also its coasts, of Anatolia, of Rumelia, Baghdad, Greece, Turkistan, Tartary, Circassia, of the two regions of Kabarda, of Georgia, of the plain of Kypchak, of the whole country of the Tartars, of Kefe and of all the neighboring countries, of Bosnia and its dependencies, of the City and Fort of Belgrade, of the Vilayet of Serbia, with all the castles, forts and cities, of all Albania, of all Eflak and Bogdania, as well as all the dependencies and borders, and many other countries and cities. </i><br />
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<b>Taklide-Seif - (The Sword of Osman)</b><br />
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Taklide-Seif - (The Sword of Osman), was an important sword of state used during the coronation ceremony of the sultans of the Ottoman Empire.</div>
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The sword was named after Osman I, founder of the Ottoman Dynasty.</div>
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The practice started when Osman I was girt with the sword of Islam by his mentor and father-in-law Sheik Edebali.</div>
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The girding of the sword of Osman was a vital ceremony which took place within two weeks of a sultan's accession to the throne. It was held at the tomb complex at Eyüp, on the Golden Horn waterway in the capital Constantinople.</div>
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Even though the journey from Topkapi Palace (where the sultan resided) to the Golden Horn was short, the sultan would board a boat amid much pomp to go there.</div>
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The Eyüp tomb complex was built by Mehmed II in honour of Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, a companion of the Prophet Muhammad who had died during the first Muslim siege of Constantinople in the 7th century.</div>
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The sword girding thus occurred on what was regarded as sacred grounds, and linked the newly enthroned sultan both to his 13th-century ancestors and to the very person of the Prophet.</div>
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The fact that the emblem by which a sultan was enthroned consisted of a sword was highly symbolic: it showed that the office with which he was invested was first and foremost that of a warrior.</div>
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The Sword of Osman was girded on to the new sultan by the Sharif of Konya, a Mevlevi dervish, who was summoned to Constantinople for that purpose.</div>
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Such a privilege was reserved to the men of this Sufi order from the time Osman I had established his residence in Konya in 1299, before the capital was moved to Bursa and later to Constantinople.</div>
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Until the late 19th century, non-Muslims were banned from entering the Eyüp Mosque and witnessing the girding ceremony.</div>
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The first to depart from this tradition was Mehmed V, whose girding ceremony was open to people of different faiths.</div>
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Held on 10 May 1909, it was attended by representatives of all the religious communities present in the empire, notably the Greek Patriarch, the chief rabbi and a representative of the Armenian church. The fact that non-Muslims were allowed to see the ceremony enabled The New York Times to write an extremely detailed account of it.</div>
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Mehmed V's brother and successor, Mehmed VI, went even further by allowing his girding ceremony to be filmed. Since he was the last reigning Ottoman sultan, this is the only such ceremony that was ever put on film.<br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">O T T O M A N P A L A C E S</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"> </span></b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 19px;"><b> طوپقپو سرايى</b></span></span><br />
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Topkapi </span>Sarayi <span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">- Bab i Saadet (the Sublime Porte) - Istanbul - Turkey</span></b><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Topkapi Sarayi, usually spelled "Topkapi" in English) is a palace in Istanbul, Turkey, which was the official and primary residence in the city of the Ottoman Sultans for approximately 400 years (1465-1856) of their 624-year reign.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The palace was a setting for state occasions and royal entertainments and is a major tourist attraction today, containing the most holy relics of the Muslim world such as the Prophet Muhammed's cloak and sword.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: 19px;"><b> طوپقپو سرايى</b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Topkapi </b></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Sarayi</b></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b> - Bab i Saadet - Istanbul - Turkey</b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Topkapi </b></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Sarayi - </b></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Diwan - Istanbul Turkey</b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: 19px;"><b> طوپقپو سرايى</b></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"> </span></b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Imperial Harem - Entrance -Topkapi </b></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Sarayi </b></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>- Istanbul Turkey</b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: 19px;"><b> طوپقپو سرايى</b></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"> </span></b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Mecidiye Kosku -Topkapi </b></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Sarayi </b></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>- Istanbul Turkey</b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 19px;">Dolmabahçe Sarayı</span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Dolmabahce Sarayi - Istanbul Turkey</b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Dolmabahçe Sarayi, in Istanbul, Turkey, located on the European side of theBosporus, served as the main administrative center of the Ottoman Empire from 1856 to 1922, apart from a 22-year interval (1887-1909) in which Yildiz Palace was used.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Reception Hall - Dolmabahce Sarayi - Istanbul Turkey</b></span><br />
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<b>Süfera Salon - Dolmabahce Sarayi - Istanbul Turkey</b><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">O T T O M A N O R D E R S</span><br />
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<b>Mecidi Order - Star - House of Osman</b><br />
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<b>Mecidi Order - Star and Ribbon - House of Osman</b><br />
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<b>Osmani Order - 2nd Class - House of Osman</b><br />
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<b>Osmani Order - Star - House of Osman</b><br />
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<b>Ottoman Mecidiye Order - Star and Badge - House of Osman</b><br />
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<b>Ottoman Order of Glory - House of Osman</b><br />
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</b><br />
<b>Osmanli Devleti Nisani Yeni - The House of Osman</b><br />
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<b>Ottoman Imperial Standard - The House of Osman </b><br />
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com1